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What is artificial intelligence(A.I.)?
Artificial Intelligence is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs. It is similar to the task of using computers to understand human intelligence, but AI does not have to confine itself to methods that are biologically observable.
John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1956,defines it as "the science and engineering of making intelligent machines”.
Alexander Kronrod, a Russian AI researcher, said “Chess is the Drosophila of A.I.” He was making an analogy with geneticists' use of the fruit fly to study inheritance. Playing chess requires certain intellectual mechanism and not others. Chess programs now play at grandmaster level, but they do it with limited intellectual mechanisms compared to those used by a human chess player, substituting large amounts of computation for understanding. Once we understand these mechanisms better, we can build human-level chess programs that do far less computation than do present programs
Applications of A.I.
Business:-
Banks use artificial intelligence systems to organize operations, invest in stocks, and manage properties. In August 2001, robots beat humans in a simulated financial trading competition (BBC News, 2001).
Medicine:-
A medical clinic can use artificial intelligence systems to organize bed schedules, make staff rotation, and provide medical information.
Factories & Industries:-
Robots have become common in many industries. They are often given jobs that are considered dangerous to humans. Robots have proven effective in jobs that are very repetitive which may lead to mistakes or accidents due to a lapse in concentration and other jobs which humans may find degrading. General Motors uses around 16,000 robots for tasks such as painting, welding, and assembly.
Toys and games:-
The 1990s saw some of the first attempts to mass-produce domestically aimed types of basic Artificial Intelligence for education, or leisure. This prospered greatly with the Digital Revolution, and helped introduce people, especially children, to a life of dealing with various types of AI, specifically in the form of Tamagotchis and Giga Pets, the Internet (example: basic search engine interfaces are one simple form), and the first widely released robot, Furby. A mere year later an improved type of domestic robot was released in the form of Aibo, a robotic dog with intelligent features and autonomy.
Practical Applications:-
Many practical applications are dependent on artificial neural networks, networks that pattern their organization in mimicry of a brain's neurons, which have been found to excel in pattern recognition. Financial institutions have long used such systems to detect charges or claims outside of the norm, flagging these for human investigation. Neural networks are also being widely deployed in homeland security, speech and text recognition, medical diagnosis (such as in Concept Processing technology in EMR software), data mining, and e-mail spam filtering.
A.I. IN OUR LIFE:
It is very evident that artificial intelligence is already very much a part of everyday life in industrialized nations. AI is helping people in every field make better use of information to work smarter, not harder. People of the future may look back on our society and marvel at our way of life: doctors relying mainly on their memory for all the salient facts to a case, cars that can't parallel-park themselves, factories requiring human assembly-line drudgery, library books unable to recommend other relevant information sources. Al touches our lives in more than one way as I have mentioned above. Looks like,there will come time when AI,will an indispensable part of human existence. So lets just sit back,and wait for the future and righ now live life to the fullest!
CONTRIBUTED BY: N.Abhay Bhaskar Menon, IInd BCA
OVERCLOCKING
Overclocking is the process of forcing a computer component to run at a higher clock rate than it was designed for or was designated by the manufacturer.
Users who overclock their components mainly focus their efforts on processors, video cards, motherboard chip sets, and Random Access Memory (RAM). It is done through manipulating the CPU multiplier and the motherboard's front side bus (FSB) speed until a maximum stable
operating frequency is reached. While the idea is simple, variation in the electrical and physical characteristics of computing systems complicates the process. CPU multipliers, bus dividers, voltages,
thermal loads, cooling techniques and several other factors can affect it. And the simplest way to do that is to vary the voltage and other settings via the BIOS setup.
Considerations
There are several considerations when overclocking. The first consideration is to ensure that it is supplied with adequate power to operate at the new speed. However, supplying the power with improper settings or applying excessive voltage can permanently damage a component. Since tight tolerances are required for overclocking, only more expensive motherboards—with advanced settings that computer enthusiasts are likely to use—have built-in overclocking capabilities. Motherboards with fewer settings, such as those found in Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) systems, lack such features in order to eliminate the possibility of misconfiguration and cut down on the support costs and warranty claims to the manufacturer.
Cooling
All electronic circuits discharge heat generated by the movement of electrons. As clock frequencies in digital circuits increase, the power dissipation goes up. Due to increased power produced by overclocked components, an effective cooling system is necessary to avoid damaging the hardware. In addition, digital circuits slow down at high temperatures due to changes in metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) device characteristics. Wire resistance also increases slightly at higher temperatures, contributing to decreased circuit performance. Because most stock cooling systems are designed for the amount of power produced during non-overclocked use, overclockers typically turn to
more effective cooling solutions, such as powerful fans or heavy duty heat sinks.
Stability and functional correctness
As an overclocked component operates outside of the manufacturer's recommended operating conditions, it may function incorrectly, leading to system instability. An unstable overclocked system, while it may work fast, can be frustrating to use. Another risk is silent data corruption—errors that are initially undetected. In general, overclockers claim that testing can ensure that an overclocked system
is stable and functioning correctly. Although software tools are available for testing hardware stability, it is generally impossible for anyone (even the processor manufacturer) to thoroughly test the
functionality of a processor. A particular "stress test" can verify only the functionality of the specific instruction sequence used in combination with the data and may not detect faults in those
operations. For example, an arithmetic operation may produce the correct result but incorrect flags; if the flags are not checked, the error will go undetected. Achieving good fault coverage requires
immense engineering effort, and despite all the resources dedicated to validation by manufacturers, mistakes can still be made. To further complicate matters, in process technologies such as silicon on
insulator, devices display hysteresis—a circuit's performance is affected by the events of the past, so without carefully targeted tests it is possible for a particular sequence of state changes to work at
overclocked speeds in one situation but not another even if the voltage and temperature are the same.
Factors allowing overclocking
When a manufacturer rates a chip for a certain speed, it must ensure that the chip functions properly at that speed over the entire range of allowed operating conditions. When overclocking a system, the operating conditions are usually tightly controlled, making the manufacturer's margin available as free headroom. Other system components are generally designed with margins for similar reasons; overclocked systems absorb this designed headroom and operate at lower tolerances. Some of what appears to be spare margin is actually required for proper operation of a processor throughout its lifetime. As semiconductor devices age, various effects such as hot carrier injection, negative
bias thermal instability and electro migration reduce circuit performance. When overclocking a new chip it is possible to take advantage of this margin, but as the chip ages this can result in situations where a processor that has operated correctly at overclocked speeds for years spontaneously fails to operate at those same speeds later. If the overclocker is not actively testing for system stability
when these effects become significant, errors encountered are likely to be blamed on sources other than the overclocking.
Advantages
The user can, in many cases, purchase a slower, cheaper component and overclock it to the speed of a more expensive component. Faster performance in games, encoding, video editing applications, and system tasks at no additional expense, but at increased cost for electrical power consumption. Particularly for enthusiasts who regularly upgrade their hardware, overclocking can increase the time before an upgrade is needed. Some systems have "bottlenecks", where small overclocking of a component can help realize the full potential of another component to a greater percentage than the limiting hardware is overclocked. Overclocking can be an engaging hobby in itself and supports many dedicated online communities.
Disadvantages
Many of the disadvantages of overclocking can be mitigated or reduced in severity by skilled overclockers. The lifespan of a processor is negatively affected by higher operation frequencies, increased voltages and heat. Increased clock speeds and voltages result in higher power consumption. Stability problems may surface after prolonged usage due to new workloads or untested portions of the processor core. High-performance fans used for extra cooling can produce large amounts of noise.
Even with adequate CPU cooling, the excess heat produced by an overclocked processing unit increases the ambient air temperature of the system case; consequently, other components may be affected. Overclocking has a risky potential to end in component failure ("heat death"). Technically, overclocking a PC component may void the component's warranty. Overly aggressive voltage settings or improper cooling may cause chip temperatures to rise so quickly that irreversible damage is caused to the chip causing immediate failure or significantly reducing its lifetime.
Limitations
Personal computers are mostly used for tasks which are not computationally demanding, or which are performance-limited by bottlenecks outside of the local machine.
It is generally accepted that, even for computationally-heavy tasks, speed increases of less than ten percent are difficult to discern. For example, when playing video games, it is difficult to discern an increase from 60 to 66 frames per second (FPS) without the aid of an on-screen frame counter. In such cases it does however usually allow the possible usage of higher image quality(so called eye candy) settings. The difference can also be between playable and unacceptable depending on the situation.
( Interested? Visit - http://www.wikihow.com/Overclock-a-PC to learn how to overclock )
CONTRIBUTED BY - Denny Philip IInd BCA
Source – Wikipedia
CYBER SQUATTING
“CYBER SQUATTING” a new cyber crime that has crop up in the event of time is the talk of the phase. Although the crime emerged a few years back but it came in to limelight recently,due to which many computer jurist has considered it as new born. Wit th advent of Internet, the world today is witnessing a revolutionary change in the field of communications. Everybody, who is somebody, seems to have something to do with the CYBER SPACE. Wide spectrum of delinquencies occurs when domain names bearing like Cyber Squatt comes come under umbrella term of “cyber crime”. Cyber Squatting occurs when domain names bearing resemblance to famous trade marks are registered by persons hoping to sell the registration to the corresponding trade mark holder. Typically in such cases persons who have absolutely nothing to do with the name,virtually pirate the name by obtaining a SLD registration wit the '.com' TLD of a well-known company or brand. The term derives from SQUATTING and selling it at higher price later. Common examples of cyber squatting include the reservation of sites that include the names of celebrities or companies. To make it simple, you register a domain name with an Internet Service Provider with a name of company that's just launched. When the company wants to go online it's domain name is not available as it has been already registered by you. As for business this domain is required by the company,so you can offer to sell domain name to the company at a high price.
This guarantees the cyber squatter a profit whenever a celebrity or company decides to set up official website and need that domain this requires registration of a particular domain name and website under the Domain Name System (DNS). However, this practice has spawned a new industry in valuable domain names. These practices include the deliberate bad faith registration as domain of well-known trademarks in the hope of being able to sell the domain to the owners (or rivals owners) or simply to take unfair advantage of the reputation attached to those marks. In technical parlance,this is called cyber squatting. This involves the use of domain name by a person with neither trade mark registration nor any inherent rights to the name so, what is the magnitude of the present day problem cyber squatting?
It would be a futile attempt to encompass the ever increasing magnitude of cyber -squatting,but reference to a case,highlights possible abuse and commercial nuisance generated by cyber squatting: -
probably the first reported Indian case is Yahoo! Inc. V. AKASH ARORA wherein the Plaintiff, who is the registered owner of the domain name “Yahoo.com” succeeded in obtaining an interim order restraining the defendants and agents from dealing in service or goods on the Internet or otherwise under the domain name “Yahooindia.com” or any other trademark/domain name which is deceptively similar to Paintiff's trade mark “Yahoo”.
Cyber squatting is undoubtedly the most contentious in cyber law area throughout the world. But where in lays the solution? In
the domain name holder could be in breach of that states “ a person infringes a registered trademark if he uses identical or similar to the registered trademark in identical or similar goods or services”.
Recognizing the problems raised by clashes between domain name system and trademarks, The World Intellectual property Organization (WIPO) Arbitration and
After analyzing the concept of cyber squatting , It can be said the question whether cyber squatting would amount to either a trademark infringement or a passing off is going to pose real challenges to both the bench and the Bar alike in
CONTRIBUTED BY: Kakkul Bhattacharjee
II BCA (Evening)
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